Ancient Egyptian Medicine

Considering the advancements society has made in modern medicine over just the last century, it’s interesting to wonder how past civilizations had managed to survive through some of life’s most fatal injuries and diseases. Medicine was performed by individuals of all social classes with different techniques and rituals varying amongst these people. Religious healing and spirituality have served as a precursor to medicine and provide us with insight to the motives and philosophies that drove the Ancient Egyptians’ curiosity about the body and the way it works. This curiosity encouraged the development of various methods of healing which eventually lead to the establishment of specialized physicians. The term “physician” could be used to describe many doctors and their practices in Ancient Egypt, ranging from healers of the head, to healers of the anus. By studying ancient scripts found on old papyri, analyzing the influence magic had on their techniques, and looking at the rituals they preformed, we are able to reach a conclusion about how these doctors and their practices contributed to the sustainability of Ancient Egypt.

The history of Ancient Egypt begins with the establishment of a government that joined together the small cultural groups living along the Nile River; it is said that Narmer is the king who first initiated and completed this unification. Following him is the second ruler of the First Dynasty, Aha, whose duty was to maintain the organization Narmer had created, and who is also believed to have been the first practicing king-physician of this time.[1] Although it was more common for “gods” and priests to perform medical procedures, it made sense that the pharaoh would want to educate himself in the practices of medicine as well. Pharaohs took on many important roles throughout the existence of their civilization and, along with delegating diplomatic affairs, were known to be spiritual leaders as well as possessing the ability to heal others through the use of magic. Although there are unclear depictions of who exactly was the first physician, it is suggested that through observation and relations with the physicians to his warriors at the time, Aha may have pursued a general knowledge in healing and medicine. Because he was the first to be credited for what could have been his own work, or the work of another specialized physician, he is believed to be the first king-physician, creating a trend for many others to follow, and furthering the Ancient Egyptians’ interest in medicine.

Our accounts of the medical procedures occurring during this time period come from hieroglyphs on the inner walls of pyramids and ancient papyri that were discovered at archeological sites; the most famous being the Edwin Smith Papyrus. Although this document is dated to 1600 BC, it suggests that many of the diagnoses were replicated from much older scripts that may have been dated back between 3000 and 2500 BC.[2] The Edwin Smith Papyrus leads us to understanding the attitudes the Ancient Egyptians had about surgical procedures regarding the head, the face, the throat, the neck, arms, and the chest.[3] The strenuous labor conditions and malnutrition many slaves endured during this time made them great subjects for studying various methods of healing because the daily tasks they performed often resulted in injury. Archeological studies of skeletons during the Ramesside period show evidence of hard labor and famine in the form of bone fractures and stunted growth of this generation. Other primary medical papyri include the Eber’s Papyrus, the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus, and the Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden, contributing to the growing concept of medicine and healing in Ancient Egypt.

Throughout the existence of the Ancient Egyptian civilization, religion had always played a prominent role in the everyday lives of its people, but magic was also believed to greatly contribute to the process of healing. The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden mentioned previously is evidence of these ideals and the people of this civilization strongly felt illnesses were the result of malicious spirits. The only way to purge the body of these toxic spirits was to consume magical potions or perform a ritual to drive out the ailments.[4] Of the 62 prescriptions that are listed in this papyrus, only 25 are medical, making the rest of them magical methods of dispelling diseases. Some of these formulas include “spells against swellings, some unidentified diseases, one for the placenta, dermatological diseases, eye diseases, against hemorrhages in pregnant women, and burns.”[5] An example of these magical rituals comes from the London Papyrus.

The following is a spell that was recited to extract poison from one’s body.

" [Spell] spoken for extracting the venom from, the heart of a man who has been made to drink a potion or (?) ' Hail to him! (bis) Yablou, the golden cup of Osiris. Isis (and) Osiris (and) the great Agathodaemon have drunk from thee; the three gods have drunk, I have drunk after them myself; for, dost thou make me drunk? Dost thou make me suffer shipwreck? Dost thou make me perish ?dost thou cause me confusion? Dost thou cause me to be vexed of heart? Dost thou cause my mouth to speak blasphemy? May I be healed of all poison pus (and) venom which have been ...ed to my heart; when I drink thee, may I cause them to be cast up in the name of Sarbitha, the daughter of the Agathodaemon; for I am Sabra, Briatha, Brisara, Her is my name. I am Horus Sharon (?) when he comes from receiving acclamation (?), Yaho, the child is my name as my real name.' (Pronounced) to a cup of wine and you put (sic) fresh rue and put it to it; and you make invocation to it seven times, and make the man drink it in the morning before he has eaten."

These spells would often be accompanied by potions or the use of materials and animals in certain rituals. In the same papyrus we see an example of this in the spell to separate a man from a woman. Shrews, lizards, hawks, and weasels are used in various ways and often killed for consumption.[6] Physicians who often preformed these rituals and prepared the ingredients for use were known as the priest-doctor-magicians.[7]

Within the realm of medicine, there was a hierarchy that was established with ranks such as Chief Medical Officer, who was in charge of the Superintendents and Inspectors of Physicians, who in turn, was the overseer of the physicians. Imhotep held the highest honor with his title as “Father of Medicine” and was considered a god of healing after his death for his great knowledge and powers in healing.[8] The idea that specialized medicine was present in Ancient Egypt is supported in many medical papyri and other documents referring to this time period. Herodotus states “The art of medicine among them [Ancient Egyptians] is distributed thus: each physician is a physician of one disease and of no more … for some profess themselves to be physicians of the eyes, others of the head, others of the teeth, others of the affections of the stomach, and others of the more obscure ailments.”[9] Physicians are listed in regards to their specialty; including ophthalmology, dentistry, proctology, and gynecology. Ophthalmology occurs frequently throughout these records, as Egyptians felt the eyes served great importance to their health. One of the more relevant accounts we have of specialization is the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus, in which matters of pregnancy and pain in the limbs and other parts of the body of women are recognized. In the case of a hurting womb, the woman is to explain the smell she emits, and is then advised to treat it with that of which she smells; in this case it is roasted meat.[10]

The concept of true specialization is suggested by Wingate to have been influenced by the Greeks,[11] and by confining one’s knowledge to a specific body part, their knowledge of it would be greater. However, this suggestion is also challenged by the notion that for a physician to specialize in one area of the body, the Ancient Egyptians would have had to regard their body parts as being separate entities from each other.[12] Because specialization was not recorded in other civilizations, it was more likely that specialized physicians were a minority compared to those who practiced general healing.

By examining the medical scripts that have survived the past thousands of years, we are able to conclude that the Ancient Egyptians were ahead of their time when it came to the study of medicine. Although the idea of specialization is questionable, it is clear that they had an understanding of the body that was far more advanced than the civilizations surrounding them. Could their advanced techniques and knowledge of certain body parts be the proof of specialization that we needed all along? The roles of physicians were honored in classes of all social standings and magic contributed a great deal to their healing practices. If it weren’t for the efforts of these practitioners and the records they left behind, we would not have an understanding of the concepts of Ancient Egyptian medicine.

Bibliography

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Dollinger, Andre. “Ancient Egyptian Medicine; In Sickness and in Health: Preventative and Curative Health Care.” An Introduction to the History and Culture of Pharaonic Egypt, last modified November, 2013. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/medicine.htm

Ghalioungui P. “Early Specialization in Ancient Egyptian Medicine and its Possible Relation to an Archetypal Image of the Human Organism. Medical History 13. No. 4 (1969): 383-386. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033983/pdf/medhist00137-0091.pdf

Kwiecinski, Jakub. “The Dawn of Medicine: Ancient Egypt and Athotis, the King-Physician,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 56, no. 1 (2013): 99-104. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pbm/summary/v056/56.1.kwiecinski.htm

Net, Jidai. “Herodotus Book II” Herodotus’ Histories. 2014. http://herodotushistories.com/herodotus-book-2/

Ritner, Robert K. “Innovations and Adaptations in Ancient Egyptian Medicine,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 59, no. 2 (2000): 107-117. http://www.jstor.org/stable/545610

Trueman, Chris. “Ancient Egyptian Medicine.” HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. Last modified, 2014. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient_egyptian_medicine.htm

Trueman, Chris. “The Kahun Gynecological Papyrus.” HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. Last modified, 2014. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/kahunpapyrus.htm

Veiga, Paula. “Health and Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Magic and Science.” 2-82 https://www.academia.edu/225468/Health_and_Medicine_in_Ancient_Egypt_Magic_and_Science

Wingate, T. Todd. “Egyptian Medicine: A Critical Study of Recent Claims,” American Anthropologist 23, no. 4 (1921): 460-470. http://www.jstor.org/stable/660670

[1] Jakub Kwiecinski. “The Dawn of Medicine: Ancient Egypt and Athotis, the King-Physician,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 56, no. 1 (2013): 100, accessed November 22, 2014.

[2] P. W. Brandt-Rauf and S. I. Brandt-Rauf. “History of Occupational Medicine: Relevance of Imhotep and the Edwin Smith Papyrus. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 44. no. 1 (1987): 68.

[3] Dollinger, Andre. “Ancient Egyptian Medicine; In Sickness and in Health: Preventative and Curative Health Care.” An Introduction to the History and Culture of Pharaonic Egypt, last modified November, 2013.

[4] Chris Trueman. “Ancient Egyptian Medicine.” HistoryLearningSite.co.uk, last modified, 2014.

[5] Paula Veiga. “Health and Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Magic and Science.”

[6] Dollinger “Ancient Egyptian Medicine.”

[7] Paula Veiga. “Health and Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Magic and Science.”

[8] Chris Trueman. “Ancient Egyptian Medicine.” HistoryLearningSite.co.uk, last modified, 2014.

[9] Jidai Net. “Herodotus Book II” Herodotus’ Histories. 2014.

[10] Trueman, Chris. “The Kahun Gynecological Papyrus.”

[11] T. Todd Wingate. “Egyptian Medicine: A Critical Study of Recent Claims,” American Anthropologist 23, no. 4 (1921): 462, accessed November 20, 2014.

[12] Ghalioungui P. “Early Specialization in Ancient Egyptian Medicine and its Possible Relation to an Archetypal Image of the Human Organism. Medical History 13. No. 4 (1969): 384.